Russian Diaspora On-Line:
A Virtual Community of Immigrants from the former Soviet Union on the WWW (1)

Nelly Elias (The Department of Communication Studies, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev) [BIO]/
Marina Zeltser-Shorer (The Department of Political Sciences, Tel Aviv University)

Introduction

One of the many consequences of the mass migration waves of the 20 th. century was a creation of significant immigrant communities from the same country of origin in various Western countries. In the past, these communities failed to keep regular connection with their motherland and with their compatriots in other countries as a result of technological problems and geographical distance, or even as a consequence of legal restrictions imposed by the receiving countries or countries of origin. Nevertheless, due to the recent technological developments, and the geo-political changes, such as the fall of the Iron Curtain, immigrant communities dispersed all over the globe can now enjoy an on-line connection with their former homeland and with friends and relatives in other countries (Van Hear, 1998).

Under these circumstances, even the citizenship and political participation are also becoming bi-focal, since some countries of origin allow the emigrants to preserve their citizenship and to vote in the national elections. These new developments have encouraged the establishment of transnational communities, which remain loyal to their country of origin and to their compatriots in other countries, and which share a common history, language and culture (Ben-Rafael, 2001; Cohen, 1997; Glick-Schiller, Basch and Blanc-Szanton, 1995; Guarnizo and Smith 1998; Vertovec, 2001).

Furthermore, most of the scholars agree that the internet offers a new context for the thinking of transnational communities, as it becomes a main medium of "selective social interaction and symbolic belonging" (Castells, 2001: 37), which expands the space for intra-community communication, self-expression and self-representation, and which challenges the national boundaries and political restrictions (Cohen, 1997). Therefore, in order to understand immigration and transnationalism in the 21 st century, we must understand the electronic communication tools with which immigrant groups increasingly forge their community.

Accordingly, the research literature reveals that one of the main internet uses by immigrants is conducting correspondence through e-mail and web cameras with friends and family all over the world (Georgiou , forthcoming). In addition to being an efficient tool for interpersonal communication, the internet sites in the immigrants' mother tongue provide them with updated information about the current events in their former homeland and within the communities of their compatriots in other countries. These new communicational patterns expand the volume of the traditional immigrant press, thus strengthening the contacts within the Diaspora and creating the virtual ethnic communities that share not only a historical memory, but also the common experiences in the present (Elkins, 1997; Rouse, 1995).

In this regard, the study of Zhang and Xiaoming (1999) on the electronic newspapers of Chinese immigrants in various countries found out that these newspapers were more accessible in comparison to the traditional immigrant newspapers, as they reached those immigrants who without the electronic technology would have been completely disconnected from their distant motherland. Furthermore, this research showed that the Chinese electronic newspapers tended to focus more on those issues relevant to the Chinese Diaspora all over the world, as compared to the traditional immigrant newspapers that tended to emphasize the local issues. These qualities make the on-line immigrant newspapers more efficient in reinforcing contacts inside the transnational audience, and nurturing its common ethnic and cultural identity.

Moreover, in another study conducted on the Chinese immigrants' on-line newspapers it was found that this virtual space had an effect of recruiting immigrants living in different countries for organized political activities and challenging China's interior and foreign policies (Yang, 2003). Likewise, according to Hanafi (2001), an international electronic network of Palestinian refugees challenges the traditional hierarchy between the center and the periphery, between the motherland and the Diaspora, thus providing a new means of identification for the Palestinians dispersed all over the world.

The research literature also reveals that immigrants' on-line publications tend to replace the role of traditional newspapers in the process of the cultural adaptation and social integration of the immigrants. Thus, Georgiou (forthcoming) revealed that the internet provided the space in which small immigrant communities in the UK, that lack economic and political resources, could develop efficient communication channels for spreading information that was vital to their survival in the new society. Likewise, she found that the internet could serve as a forum for public discourse on those painful issues related to immigrant experiences that were usually excluded from the mainstream media and for promoting a positive image of the immigrants, contrary to their stereotypical representation by the British media.

Finally, the immigrant internet sites may fulfill an important role in the immigrants' search for a new cultural identity as against preserving the original one. In this context, Mitra (1997), who examined a portal that provided historical and cultural information about India to immigrants of Indian origins living in the U.S., found out that this portal not only enabled immigrants to keep on-line contact with their homeland, but it also redefined the Indian identity in the Diaspora. Similarly, Kozar (2002) revealed that Chinese on-line literary periodicals originating in Canada enriched the traditional cultural symbols by positioning them in the new social and cultural surroundings.

It appears, therefore, that the internet has become a most important medium, which provides the immigrant communities dispersed all over the globe with an alternative space for expression, empowerment and positive representation. Furthermore, the internet, more than any other media, can bring together the private and the public realms, communication and the information, while encouraging larger segments of the international immigrant public to participate in creating media content and building a virtual community that crosses national borders and political constrains.

A Transnational Diaspora of the immigrants from the FSU

The idea of a virtual Diaspora has already been formulated in the research literature, as well as the idea that by joining on-line communities individuals express their commitment to their former compatriots dispersed all over the world. The members of the virtual Diaspora may or may not have a common ethnic origin, but they certainly share a common cultural background, a common set of symbols and a common history, which all find major expression on the Web (Dahan and Sheffer, 2001).

In this context, the post-Soviet immigration to various Western countries provides a rare research opportunity. Since the collapse of the USSR, the Russian-speaking Diaspora is estimated to be about 10 million people. About one million of them live in Israel, three million live in Northern America, and about two million live in Germany. The remaining portion of the Russian-speaking Diaspora is spread amongst Australia, other European countries and South America.

Members in the Russian-speaking Diaspora are people from different ethnicities, who left the USSR during various periods of time. In some countries these immigrants are perceived as "Returning Diaspora" and they are granted the citizenship and full civil rights immediately upon their arrival, such as Jews in Israel. Others are immigrants, whose social status depends on labor and social legislation in each of the receiving countries (Dietz, 2000; Elias, 2003; Shuval and Leshem, 1998). Nevertheless, these immigrant communities are united on the basis of the Russian language and culture, collective memories and a common history.

Since the beginning of the 1990's, these communities maintain intensive reciprocal contacts, including cultural, economic and family connections with the FSU. Moreover, many immigrants of the 1990's have kept their citizenship in the FSU, and some of them have even kept their apartments there. At the same time, most of the immigrants maintain close relations with Russian-speakers living in other countries (Remennick, 2002). The FSU immigrants are, therefore, a good example of transmigrants, who sustain simultaneous relations that link together their former homeland and the countries of their recent settlement.

Furthermore, today we can identify a new stage in the development of the transnational community of the Russian-speaking immigrants, which is characterized by a creation of the extended network of the internet sites in Russian that is utilized by about 1.5 million immigrants. This virtual reality enables the creation and circulation of common myths and provides a space for sharing immigrant experiences, thus influencing the beliefs and behaviors of dispersed former Soviets and forming the Russian-speaking Transnational Diaspora. Moreover, e-mail and other forms of on-line communication might provide an efficient means linking the immigrants, who have settled in the US, Israel, Germany and other countries, as well as connecting them with their relatives and friends left behind. Thus, in Dahan and Sheffer's terms it could be defined as a "virtual nation" (2001: 87) which finds its major expression on the Web.

However, little is known about the volume and quality of the internet sites established by the Russian-speaking immigrants in various countries. One of the few empirical attempts to examine this phenomenon is the pioneer study by Fialkova (2005). Her research showed that during the last few years, an extended network of the Russian-language internet sites was established in most of the countries that received immigrants from the FSU, and especially in Israel, the U.S. and Germany. Furthermore, according to Fialkova, these sites emphasized two major themes: on the one hand integration problems in the host countries including alienation from them, and on the other hand, the common cultural roots with the Russian-speaking compatriots in the host country and all over the world.

Though, it is important to emphasize, that Fialkova's research has several methodological weaknesses, such as a non-systematic sampling of the internet sites analyzed for her study, and therefore cannot provide a base for drawing general conclusions concerning the Russian internet in the Diaspora. Furthermore, since Fialkova's research has not provided any indication as to the geographical profile of visitors in the various sites, her conclusions regarding the sites visitors' affinity towards their co-ethnics in other countries remain theoretical assumptions, which require further empirical investigation.

Another pioneer research that examined the Russian-language internet sites targeting the Russian-speaking immigrants is Sapienza's (2002) study of the on-line newspapers in the Russian language originating in the U.S. This study showed that apart from providing the information relevant to the immigrants residing in the U.S., these sites also tended to address themselves to a broader immigrant public, i.e. the Russian-speakers living in other countries. Hence, according to Sapienza, these sites linked their visitors to the local resources, as well as to the global Russian community, thus providing hybrid collections of cultural archives and links to the Russian cultural resources in Russia and all over the world.

This trend was also reflected in the sites visitors' geographical profile, as between 20 to 30% of the sites visitors lived outside of the U.S. In this regard, these sites contributed to the blurring of the boundaries between the local and the global, and in Haraway`s (1991) terms, they nurtured the "Outsider identities" that crossed geographical, national and ethnic characteristics (cited by Sapienza, 2002). Nevertheless, similar to the methodological weakness of Fialkova's research (2005), this study also did not rely on the substantial data concerning the transnational profile of the visitors in the Russian-language internet sites, since Sapienza's findings were based on answers from a small section of the sites' visitors.

Furthermore, an ethnographic study conducted by Yelenevskaya (2005) showed that in addition to the news, personal ads and political discussions, the Russian-language internet sites originating in Israel, Germany and Northern America provided a space for collecting and circulating immigrants' folklore and anecdotes based on their experience. Several sites also included links to other Russian-language sites, thus implementing the slogan posted on one of them: "Émigrés of the whole world unite!", which resembled the popular Marxist slogan: "Proletarians of the whole world unite!"

In addition, Yelenevskaya's study provided some preliminary findings regarding the social and cultural identity of the visitors of the Diasporic Russian-language internet sites. Thus, though most of the respondents, who visited the Russian internet sites, were young and well-integrated immigrants, they emphasized their strong ties with other Russian immigrants and expressed resentment towards those co-ethnics who entered into friendships with local residents. Furthermore, these respondents frequently visited the Russian-language chats and forums in order to express their ambivalent feelings towards their host society and to share their immigrant experience with other Russian-speaking immigrants.

These findings indicate that the transnational lifestyle might slow down the social and cultural integration of the newcomers into the host society. While for many immigrants the on-line contacts with their co-ethnics in the former homeland and in other countries may be an advantage, enabling them to maintain some measure of cultural continuity and providing them with an emotional shelter, for others it means living in a virtual ghetto, i.e. in a state of permanent uprooting and alienation from the host society.

It appears, therefore, that the Diasporic Russian-language internet sites create a virtual space, in which Russian-speaking immigrants living in different countries meet and discuss questions that are an integral part of their common experience as members of a transnational immigrant community. However, this assumption has not been examined systematically, since the previous studies provided only partial answers concerning the transnational character of the internet sites established by the FSU immigrants in different countries. Furthermore, the socio-demographic profile of the visitors in the Diasporic Russian-language internet sites, the main needs being fulfilled by these sites, as well as the various aspects concerning the social and cultural identity of their visitors, have not yet been investigated.

Hence, the present study aims to examine the transnational characteristics of the Russian-speaking Diaspora through a systematic analysis of the most popular Russian-language internet sites in the three countries that received the largest waves of immigrants from the FSU: Israel, Germany and the U.S. Furthermore, this study will examine, for the first time, the transnational aspects of the immigrants from the FSU who visit the Russian-language internet sites through the electronic survey that will be conducted simultaneously in the three countries. The following are the research questions chosen to implement the research goals:

• What are the expressions of "virtual transnationalism" as reflected in the Russian-language internet sites established in Israel, Germany and the U.S?
• What is the main profile of visitors of the Diasporic Russian-language internet sites?
• What are the main usages of these sites and what needs do they fulfill?
• And what is the place of the transnational identity as compared to other identities in the self-definition of the visitors in the Diasporic Russian-language internet sites?

Research Methods

1. An analysis of the Russian immigrants' internet sites in Israel, Germany and the U.S.

The main difficulty in researching the Web is the lack of a comprehensive database and the particularly rapid growth rate of new internet sites. Therefore, in order to identify the Russian-language internet sites in various countries, our first step was to build a database using the best established Russian search engines, such as www.rambler.ru and @Mail.ru, which gather information on the Russian-language internet sites all over the world. Through these engines we searched for the internet sites ending with the suffix "co.il" - indicating that the "Russian" internet site is located in Israel, and with the suffix "de" - indicating that the "Russian" internet site is located in Germany. However, this method did not allow an identification of the Russian-language internet sites originating in the U.S., since these sites usually end with the universal suffix "com". Therefore, in order to identify the Russian-language internet sites located in the U.S., we used two local Russian-language ranking counters - rank.americaru.com and www.russianamerica.com/top.

Another difficulty in searching for the Russian immigrants' internet sites was the fact that some of them end with the suffix "ru" (the suffix of the internet sites originating in the FSU) or with the international suffixes, such as "com", "net" and "org". Hence, after an initial mapping through the search engines, we conducted a comprehensive examination of the links connecting the different internet sites, in order to locate other websites intended for the Russian-speaking audience in Israel, Germany and the U.S.

After creating a database, which included some tens of the Russian-language internet sites originating in each country, the next stage was to search for the information on the sites` popularity. Therefore, regarding each site we checked whether it was affiliated to one of the two main ranking counters - Top100.rambler.ru and Top.mail.ru - that provide the rating for various Russian-language internet sites(2). In this regard, we should mention that not all the internet sites were affiliated to one of the ranking counters. Likewise, several internet sites, which were affiliated to the ranking counters, did not expose their rating information for public viewing.

Therefore, the sites that were finally included in the study were those sites that provided the available ranking data. Amongst the different kinds of ranking data, we referred to the number of unique visitors to the site during a day, in order to prevent recounting of the same visitors that enter the site several times a day. At a later stage, we calculated the average daily rating of different sites based on the daily rating data for October 2005. In addition, for most of the sites the counters provided the data on geographical distribution of their visitors, which enabled us to identify the countries where the sites' visitors reside.

Eventually, for the present research we selected the six most popular sites (two in each country), which also provided a geographical distribution of their visitors. Hence, the sites' analysis will include ranking data, visitors' geographical profile, as well as several other dimensions which could point to the site's transnational character, such as a proportion of items covering the current events in the host country versus the FSU and other countries; and the patterns of the site's affinity to other sites, while distinguishing between the links to the sites originating from the FSU, sites originating in the host country and sites originating in other countries.

2. The electronic survey amongst visitors to the Russian-language internet sites

Similar to the difficulty of studying the immigrant internet sites, a study of visitors to those sites places an even greater methodological challenge, since there is no available sampling frame, which contains details of visitors to the Russian-language internet sites in various countries. Therefore, we used a non-random sampling method, known as "a volunteer sample". For this purpose, we chose the three most popular Russian-language forums (one in each country), and placed a request to participate in our survey there. The forums' visitors who agreed to participate in the survey were requested to click on the link that connected them to a special site containing the electronic questionnaire. Each respondent was identified by his/her IP address, in order to avoid repeated participation in the survey. The survey was conducted during October - November, 2005.

Two prime considerations were the basis for choosing forums as a central means of reaching the FSU immigrants, who visit the Russian-language internet sites. Firstly, thousands of immigrants visit these forums every day, thus significantly enlarging the probability of participation in the survey. Secondly, the visitors of the Russian-language forums in various countries are supposed to be similar in their main characteristics to those immigrants who visit other Russian-language internet sites.

The survey questionnaire was in Russian and it consisted of three main parts. The first part included questions regarding the respondents' patterns of usage of the different internet sites, while distinguishing between the Russian-language sites originating in the host country, the Russian-language sites originating in other countries, and the internet sites in the host language. The second part included questions regarding the respondents' socio-demographic characteristic, and their citizenship status in the host country and in the FSU. The third part of the questionnaire consisted of questions concerning various aspects of the social and cultural identity of the respondents, such as their knowledge of the host language; friends amongst the local residents compared to immigrants from the FSU living in the host country and friends living in other countries; sense of belonging to the host society compared to identification with the Russian-speaking immigrant community; and willingness to adopt the host culture compared to preserving the culture of origin.

Research findings

The Russian Diaspora internet sites

The first research question was intended to examine the characteristics of the transnational community of the immigrants from the FSU, as expressed in the Russian-language internet sites originating in Israel, the U.S. and Germany. Therefore, the purpose of this subchapter was to analyze popular internet sites in the Russian languages established in these three countries, with reference to the extent of coverage of the current events in the host country compared to the FSU and other countries; the pattern of links connecting the different sites originating in the host country, in the FSU and in other countries; and the geographical distribution of the sites' visitors.

The Israeli internet sites

The most popular Russian-language internet site in Israel is the portal www.zahav.ru with an average rating of 23 thousand visitors per day. The portal includes the entertainment and cultural items targeted at the Russian-speaking immigrants living in Israel, as well as several search engines, forums and sales. In addition, the portal contains links to other Russian-language electronic media, such as three on-line Russian-language newspapers originating in Israel, four on-line newspapers originating in the FSU, two sports newspapers, one Russian-language Israeli radio station and three television channels originating in the FSU. The geographic distribution of the site's visitors indicates that a quarter of its visitors live outside of Israel, including residents of the FSU (5% of the visitors) and North America (2% of the visitors).

The second most popular Russian-language internet site is the on-line newspaper www.mignews.co.il with an average rating of 22 thousand visitors per day. The analysis of the site's front page reveals that mignews aims to position itself as an international newspaper; this is visible in the equal coverage of current events in Israel and world news. Furthermore, news reports related to the events in the FSU appear under a separate category and consist of about 20% of the total news coverage outside of Israel. The international orientation of the newspaper is also visible in the coverage of events in Israel, as it tends to emphasize events connected to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and to the Israeli foreign policy, while only minimal attention is dedicated to the internal events that are not of political character or that are local news.

The international orientation of mignews is even more prominent in sections covering culture and science, as in both sections 11 out of 15 items are related to world events, three items focus on the FSU and only one item is related to the cultural or scientific events in Israel. Similarly, the analysis of the site's links indicates that mignews directs itself toward the Russian-speaking Diaspora, as it includes links to three on-line newspapers originating in the FSU and to a Russian-language on-line newspaper originating in the U.S. The transnational character of the site fits the geographical profile of its visitors, as only about half of the visitors live in Israel, 23% live in the U.S. and Canada, 10% live in Russia and the Ukraine and the rest of the visitors live in Germany and other European countries.

The American internet sites

The most popular Russian-language internet site in the U.S. is a portal www.russianamerica.com with an average rating of 11 thousand visitors per day. The front page of the site contains an expanded review of news in the U.S. and abroad; on-line editions of the cities Boston, Los Angeles, Chicago, New York, Cleveland, Seattle, San Francisco and Miami; and sections containing practical information relevant to the Russian-speaking community of the U.S., such as schedules of Russian artists' shows, yellow pages, sales and legal advice.

An analysis of the news reports on the site's front page shows that it places special emphasis on the coverage of events in the FSU, which get equal attention (40% of the total amount of news reports) compared to the current events in the U.S. Furthermore, the analysis of the site's links reveals that it includes links to dozens of on-line newspapers, magazines, radio stations and television channels originating in the FSU. The geographical distribution of the site's visitors also points to its prominent transnational orientation, as only about 40% of its visitors live in the U.S., while about a quarter live in the FSU.

The second most popular Russian-language internet site is www.nrs.com, which belongs to the oldest Russian newspaper published in the U.S., Novoe Russkoe Slovo (Zeltser, 1998), with an average rating of about 1300 visitors per day. The site includes an expanded edition of news reports, a sports section, soft news and the special section dedicated to local events in New York, where the newspaper's editorial board is located. Most of the news items on the site cover issues concerning the U.S., with special emphasis on the events of national importance, yet, 20% of the news items cover current events in the FSU, events related to the Russian immigrant communities in other countries and news of the Jewish world.

The analysis of the site's links reveals that it contains links to the most popular on-line newspaper in Israel, www.mignews.co.il, and to on-line newspapers originating in the FSU. Furthermore, the site relies heavily on the editorial material of mignews, since several news reports on www.nrs.com, both related to the current events in Israel and in the U.S., were originally published on the Israeli site. Similarly, an analysis of the geographical profile of site's visitors points to its transnational character, as about 65% of the visitors live in the U.S. and Canada, 19% live in the FSU, 5% live in Israel, 1.5% live in Germany and the rest live in other European countries.

The German internet sites

The most popular Russian-language site in Germany is the portal www.germany.ru, with an average rating of 15 thousand visitors per day. The site's front page mainly contains items concerning the adaptation of FSU immigrants to the host society, including legal advice, public transportation, software for learning the German language and announcements about cultural events relevant to the Russian immigrant community.

The coverage of current events in other countries appears under the title "Russians abroad" and it includes five subcategories: Israel, the U.S., Canada, Europe and Australia. Each of the subcategories contains links to dozens of on-line newspapers originating from these countries. Therefore, it seems that www.germany.ru too, despite its intra-German orientation, contains transnational characteristics, which are also reflected in the geographical profile of its visitors, as only 60% of them live in Germany, 25% live in the FSU, 4% live in the U.S. and Canada, 1% live in Israel and the rest live in other European countries.

The second most popular Russian-language internet site in Germany is www.vorota.de, with an average rating of 3500 visitors per day. The site is oriented to Russian-speaking immigrants and to those intending to emigrate to Germany. Therefore, it provides detailed information on issues related to the different stages of adaptation to the host society, such as employment, social security assistance, health insurance and family reunification. Even though this site does not include links to internet sites originating in other countries, the analysis of the geographical profile of the visitors to the site points to its transnational character, as only 44% of the visitors live in Germany, 37% live in the FSU, 2% live in the U.S., 1% live in Israel and the rest live in other European countries.

Geographic profile of visitors to the internet sites originating in the FSU

The findings presented in the previous subchapters indicate that the Russian-language internet sites originating in Israel, the U.S. and Germany are most popular amongst the Russian speakers living in other countries, a trend which supports the claim as to the transnational character of the Russian-speaking immigrants dispersed all over the globe. However, in order to strengthen this assumption, it is also important to examine the geographical profile of visitors of the internet sites originating in the FSU, since members of the transnational communities are usually characterized by a strong affinity towards the country of origin.

In this regard, we chose to analyze the geographic profile of visitors of the two most popular internet sites originating in the FSU: www.lenta.ru, with an average rating of 170 thousand visitors per day, and www.newsru.com, with an average rating of 105 thousand visitors per day. Both sites are on-line newspapers covering current events in the FSU and all over the world. Similarly to the internet sites in Israel, the U.S. and Germany analyzed for this study, the geographical distribution of the visitors in the sites originating in the FSU also points to their transnational character. Thus, only 47% of the visitors of lenta.ru live in the FSU; 21% live in the U.S. and Canada; 5% live in Germany and 3% live in Israel. Likewise, 50% of the visitors of newsru.com live in the FSU; 20% live in the U.S. and Canada; 5% live in Israel and 4% live in Germany.

The main profile of visitors in the Diasporic Russian-language internet sites

The second research question is aimed at identifying the main profile of the visitors of the Diasporic Russian-language internet sites. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to identify the main profile of the FSU immigrants, residing in Israel, the U.S. and Germany, who visit the Russian-language sites originating in the host country, while referring to their socio-demographic characteristics, their citizen status in the host country and the preservation of their citizenship in the FSU.

The analysis of the electronic survey amongst the FSU immigrants visiting the Russian-language internet sites in the three countries under consideration shows the equal distribution of men and women amongst the survey participants. More than half of the respondents (54%) live in the U.S., 24% live in Israel, and 22% live in Germany. The dominant age group was young people aged 20-35, who make up 66% of the sample. Most of the respondents were old-timers, as 72% of them have resided in the host country for over five years. Half of the respondents held academic degrees, 41% were employed in white-collar occupations and two-thirds defined themselves as belonging to the economic middle class. Furthermore, the analysis of the respondents' answers to the question concerning their religion reveals that Judaism was the most frequent religious affiliation, as 27% of the respondents defined themselves as being Jewish.

In addition to the socio-demographic characteristics, the respondents answered questions regarding their citizenship status in the host country and their plans to keep their citizenship in the FSU. In this regard, about 53% of the respondents held the citizenship of the host country and 58% kept their citizenship in the FSU. Moreover, the findings showed that almost two-thirds of the respondents perceived their residence in the host country as a temporary one, for the purpose of working or studying there, or in order to emigrate to another country.

Nevertheless, the comparison between the respondents living in different countries revealed that the respondents living in Israel were different in their citizenship status and in their future plans either to stay or to leave for a third country, compared to the respondents living in the U.S. and Germany. Thus, 56% of the respondents in Israel intended to stay in Israel, compared to 33% of the respondents in Germany and 29% of the respondents in the U.S. Furthermore, 72% of the respondents in Israel held Israeli citizenship, as compared to 41% in Germany and to 47% in the U.S. These differences are a result of the Israeli open-door immigration policy toward immigrants of Jewish origin and their families, which grants them Israeli citizenship immediately upon their arrival.

Patterns of internet usage

The third research question aimed at identifying the main patterns of the immigrants' usage of the various internet sites, comparing between Russian-language sites originated in the host country, Russian-language sites originated in other counties, and internet sites in the host language. In addition, we will compare statistics showing the frequency of use of the internet and the frequency of use of other media in the host and Russian languages.

The survey findings revealed that most of the respondents were relatively old-hand users: 24% had used the internet for over 6 years, 35% had used the internet between 4 and 5 years, 22% used it between one and two years, and only 20% were the new users who started using the internet less than a year ago. Furthermore, Table 1 shows that the frequency of use of the various Russian-language internet sites originating in the host country, Russian-language sites originating in other countries, and the internet sites in the host language was relatively equal. Nevertheless, the Russian-language internet sites originating in the host country were most popular among the sample, since they enjoyed the highest frequency of visiting, whereas the frequency of visiting the internet sites in the host language was the lowest one. Thus, 48% of the respondents visited the Russian-language sites originating in the host country several times a week, compared to 40% who visited the host language internet sites in the same time frame. At the same time 16% of the respondents never visited the host language internet sites, compared to about 9% who never visited the Russian-language sites.

Table 1: Frequency of visiting the Russian-language internet sites and sites in the host language (%)

Furthermore, Table 2 shows that the main needs being fulfilled by the different internet sites were finding a partner and entertainment. On the other hand, information needs concerning the current events in the FSU and in the host society were fulfilled less frequently. Apart from this similarity, as far as the participation in forums is concerned, we found a certain difference between the various sites, because this need was mainly fulfilled by the sites in the majority language, whereas the use of the Russian-language sites originated in other countries and for this purpose was the less frequent.

Table 2: The main needs fulfilled by the Russian-language internet sites and sites in the host language (%)

In addition, a large majority of the respondents used the communicating potential of the internet intensively in order to correspond with their relatives and friends living in the FSU and in other countries, whereas only a small minority of the respondents (16%) did not correspond with their friends and relatives through the e-mail and other communication software. Accordingly, most of the respondents perceived the internet as being an effective tool for maintaining an on-line connection with the country of origin and with friends and relatives who remained in the FSU or emigrated to other countries.

As to the purpose of correspondence, the main purpose mentioned by 30% of the respondents was to share the integration experience; 22% mentioned that the main purpose of the correspondence was conducting a dialogue with people of a similar cultural level; 20% mentioned searching for an opportunity to emigrate to another country; 13% mentioned searching for work opportunities in another country; and the purpose of 15% of the respondents was searching for a partner.

Furthermore, a comparison between the frequency of internet usage and the frequency of usage of other media in Russian and in the host languages revealed that only Russian-language television enjoys a higher popularity amongst the respondents as compared to the internet. Thus, 55% of the respondents watch the Russian television channels several times a week, compared to 48% who visit the Russian-language internet sites over the same period of time. Nevertheless, concerning other media, the research findings show that the frequency of internet usage is higher than the frequency of listening to the radio or reading the newspapers, both in the host and Russian languages.

Issues of identity and belonging amongst the visitors of the Diasporic Russian-language internet sites

The fourth and last research question was intended to examine the place of the trans-national identity in the self-definition of the visitors of the Diasporic Russian-language internet sites. In this regard, the respondents answered the questions concerning their attitudes toward the integration into the host society versus retaining the affinity to the former homeland; the importance of maintaining a connection with residents of the FSU and Russian-speaking immigrants in other countries; the motivation for creating friendships with local residents; the willingness to keep the Russian citizenship and the patterns of visiting the FSU.

First and foremost, the findings reveal that being a Russian-speaking immigrant was the most central aspect in the respondents' identity. Thus, to the question "To which category of people do you feel closer?" 27% of the respondents claimed that they feel closer to Russian-speaking immigrants all over the world; 25% felt closer to the Russian-speaking immigrants living in the host country; 23% felt closer to the residents of the FSU; and only the remaining quarter felt closer to the residents of the host country. As to the respondents' self-definition, 23% of the respondents defined themselves as "Russian-speaking immigrants"; 20% defined themselves as "Russians"; and a similar proportion defined themselves as "former residents of the FSU", whereas the categories of "being part of the host society" and "cosmopolitan" were less frequently used amongst the sample: 18% and 16% respectively.

On the other hand, regarding the question "Which country do you consider as being your home today", there was no unequivocal preference for the FSU or the host country. Thus, one-third of the respondents considered the FSU as their home; another third considered their home to be the host country; 20% claimed that they feel at home in both countries; whereas only a minority of the respondents (13%) did not feel at home in either country.

A strong identification with the FSU was also expressed in the respondents' answers concerning their willingness to preserve the Russian culture and their affinity to the FSU. Thus, for 49% of the respondents it was very important to maintain an affinity with the FSU; for 48% it was very important to preserve the Russian culture; and for 41% it was very important to maintain the connection with friends left behind in the FSU. On the other hand, the respondents' willingness to adopt the host culture and to feel a part of the host country was a little bit weaker: 38% and 41% respectively.

The findings further show that the respondents can be perceived as being members of a Russian-speaking transnational community, since they maintain close contacts with their friends in the FSU (48%), with immigrants from the FSU living in the host country (53%); and with the FSU immigrants living in other countries (56%). Yet, the survey findings do not indicate that these immigrants live in isolation from the host society, as 54% of the respondents had established friendships with the local residents.

The transnational orientation of the respondents is also expressed in their answers concerning their interest in current events in the FSU and in the communities of immigrants from the FSU in other countries. Thus, 35% of the respondents claimed that it was very important for them to be updated on current events related to the communities of Russian-speaking immigrants in other countries and 27% claimed that it was very important to be updated on current events in the FSU. Yet, regarding this trend the research findings showed that the respondents also did not isolate themselves from the host society, as an equal proportion of the respondents (35%) claimed that it was very important for them to be updated on current events in the host country.

Finally, a strong attachment to the former homeland was expressed in those answers concerning the respondents' willingness to keep the FSU citizenship and in their patterns of visiting the FSU. Thus, 73% of the respondents that held FSU citizenship claimed that it was important for them to keep their citizenship. Furthermore, 54% of the respondents had visited the FSU at least once since their immigration, and half the respondents that had not visited their former homeland expressed a will to visit the FSU in the near future.

Discussion and conclusions

The present research aimed at examining the transnational character of the Russian-speaking Diaspora, combining an analysis of the Russian-language internet sites established in the countries that received the largest waves of immigrants from the FSU, and an electronic survey amongst the immigrants from the FSU living in those countries, who visit the Russian-language internet sites.

First and foremost, the findings reveal that the Russian-language internet sites established by the FSU immigrants in Israel, the U.S. and Germany contain important transnational characteristics, as they dedicate significant space to the coverage of current events in the FSU and in other countries where the Russian-speaking Diaspora resides. The most evident example in this context can be found on the internet site www.russianamerica.com, originating in the U.S., where equal amounts of items (40%) are dedicated to the events in the FSU and to the local current events.

The transnational character of the Russian-language internet sites in Israel, Germany and the U.S. was also evident in the various links connecting these sites to on-line newspapers, radio stations and television channels originating in the FSU. Furthermore, four out of six of the sites that were analyzed in the present research contained links to the Russian-language sites in other countries, while the most prominent example can be found in two on-line newspapers, the Israeli www.mignews.co.il and the American www.nrs.com, which are connected by hyperlinks.

Accordingly, the geographical profile of the sites' visitors also reflects their transnational character, as the rate of visitors living in the countries where the sites were located is between only 40 and 75%, whereas the rest of the sites' visitors live in other countries. An apparent example of this pattern can be found in the Israeli on-line newspaper www.mignews.co.il, as almost a fifth of its visitors live in the U.S. A similar tendency of immigrants from the FSU visiting the Russian-language sites abroad is also prominent in the popular internet sites originating from the FSU, as half of their visitors live out of the borders of the FSU. These findings are fully compatible to the findings of Sapienza (2002), and strengthen his claim that the Diasporic Russian-language internet sites blur the boundaries between the local and the global and nurture multi-local and transnational affiliations.

Furthermore, the present study examined, for the first time, the main socio-demographic and cultural characteristics of immigrants from the FSU who visit the Russian-language internet sites and who, according to the research literature, constitute the hard core of the Russian-speaking transnational Diaspora.

Thus, the findings show that the prevailing profile of the visitors of the Russian-language internet sites is made up of young people aged between 20 and 35 who have resided in the host country for over five years, have an academic education, belong to the middle class socio-economically, and hold double citizenship of the host country and the country of origin. Furthermore, most of the visitors are relatively experienced internet users, while over half of them have been using the internet for more than four years.

As to the patterns of internet usage, the survey reveals that most of the respondents tend to visit Russian-language sites originating in other countries, a finding that is fully compatible with the transnational geographical profile of the visitors of the Russian-language sites analyzed for this study. Moreover, the majority of the respondents tend to visit the internet sites more frequently as compared to their consumption of other media in the host and Russian languages, since only the Russian television channels enjoy a slightly higher popularity than the internet.

As to the immigrants' needs being fulfilled by the various sites, the research findings reveal that finding a partner and entertainment appeared to be the main needs, whereas information needs were fulfilled less frequently. It seems, therefore, that portals which usually provide those services are more popular amongst the respondents, in comparison to the on-line newspapers. While there was some similarity in the patterns of the usage of different sites, as far as participation in forums is concerned, a certain difference was found. Thus, the respondents tended more to attend forums originating in the host country, while the Russian-language forums originating in other countries have been visited only by 10% of the respondents. Nevertheless, this finding can be interpreted differently, by saying that a tenth of the respondents are interested to share their opinion with the Russian speakers living in other countries.

In addition, the research findings show that the internet fulfilled a central role for most of the respondents, since it preserved their connection with friends and relatives in the FSU and other countries. Thus, about half of the respondents used e-mail for writing letters abroad at least on a weekly basis. The main purpose of this correspondence was the respondents' need to share their integration experiences and to discuss issues that interest them with people belonging to the same social milieu. Hence, the e-mail and other communication software, that connects immigrants around the globe, are becoming an especially effective tool for maintaining the transnational communities.

The present research further showed that the transnational features constitute a central part in the respondents' self-definition. In fact, most of the respondents felt a greater closeness towards other Russian speakers, whether they were immigrants living in the host country, immigrants living in other countries, or residents of the FSU. On the other hand, only a minority of the respondents felt a greater closeness towards the local residents. Similarly, the majority of the respondents tended to define themselves as "immigrants", "former citizens of the FSU" or "Russians", categories that assign them to the Russian-speaking transnational community, while the categories of "a part of the host society" and "cosmopolitan" were much less frequent.

The research findings also showed that a membership in the transnational community of Russian-speakers has more than just a declarative character, as it was also expressed in actual behavioral patterns. Thus, the majority of the respondents kept the strong and frequent connections with friends in the FSU and with immigrants from the FSU living in other countries and over half of them visited the FSU at least once.

Nevertheless, the research findings do not indicate that those immigrants, who use the Russian-language internet sites intensively, tend to isolate themselves from the host society, as it was insinuated by Yelenevskaya (2005). Hence, alongside preserving tight links with Russian-speaking immigrants in other countries and with friends and relatives in the FSU, over half of the respondents had established friendships with the local residents; and most of them claimed that it is important for them to be updated about the current events in the host country and to become a part of the new society. Furthermore, concerning the sense of "home", the findings revealed that a similar rate of respondents felt at home in the FSU and in the host country. These findings indicate that being a member of the transnational community does not slow down the immigrant's integration and does not encourage their alienation towards the host society.

In conclusion, the research findings clearly show that the Russian-language internet does create a "virtual nation" of post-Soviets who found on the Web a space for sharing mutual experiences and an efficient means of connecting them with their co-ethnics who have settled in other countries, as well as with their relatives and friends in the FSU. Yet, being a pioneer study based on a relatively small sample, the present research does not enable us to identify the unique characteristics of immigrant internet users living in different countries. Furthermore, future investigation of the content of the popular Russian-language forums might reveal the measure of involvement of immigrant internet users in the urgent political and social issues in the FSU and in Russian-speaking immigrant communities in other countries, thus contributing to the better understanding of the transnational identity and its virtual expressions.

© Nelly Elias (Ben-Gurion University of the Negev) /
Marina Zeltser-Shorer (Tel Aviv University)

NOTES

(1) We would like to thank Chaim Herzog Institute for Media, Politics and Society for its support of this project.

(2) The counter Top100.rambler.ru belongs to www.rambler.ru - one of the leading search engines originating in Russia. The counter Top.mail.ru belongs to @Mail.ru - the most popular supplier of e-mail services in Russia.

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