TRANS Nr. 17: 8.2. - A. Neelameghan and Greg Chester: Use of Mobile and Wireless Communication

ArashanipalaiNeelameghan (UNESCO/PGI Paris, France) and
Greg Chester (Leech Lake Tribal College, Cass Lake, MN, USA)

The five aspects of the background to the spread of the use of mobile technology by rural and marginalized communities in developing countries briefly discussed in this paper are: 1) Emerging knowledge society; 2) the rural community’s knowledge potential; 3) community knowledge management; 4) equity and justice in development planning; and 5) special features of mobile technology devices and services.

Features of the emerging knowledge society of the digital era include the convergence of information and communication technologies (ICTs) enabling almost seamless access, in the expanding digital space, to vast and varied knowledge sources from anywhere at any time. Expanding digital space and globalization imply, among other things, a growing interdependence among peoples of the world. Implicit in this interdependence is the need to share information, knowledge and community wisdom. These expansions also give people the perception of elimination of distance and time in the communications context and creation of a global village.

In most developing countries over 70 percent of the population live in rural areas. They are mostly illiterate or semi-literate. They live in vast numbers of rural villages, often spread out into small communities. But they form a vital cog in the national economy as they produce the raw materials of food, clothing, and shelter that are converted into consumable products, used and enjoyed by a much larger population in the urban and semi-urban areas nationally and even internationally. They also constitute a vital base of a democratic socio-political system and usually have strong family and community bonds and democratic processes for making decisions. Living close to nature they acquire knowledge of and have a stake in, the nurturing and preservation of nature’s offerings – their environment - for survival and wellbeing. They have skills in crafts, use of colors, and an integrated view of wellbeing – the totality of physical, mental, and spiritual.

Thus, these communities possess a fund of valuable native knowledge relating to the environment, the earth, climate, food, medicinal plants and animals, social and cultural value systems, ethnic music and the arts. Such knowledge is essentially locale specific, and may not even be found in modern textbook sources. For example, certain South Pacific Islanders have a detailed categorization and description of some thirty-five varieties of a single species of fish. This is important information for their daily lives: when particular varieties will appear and where in the sea, which of them have food and/or medicinal value etc. Regarding the wisdom of local communities and management of forest wealth, P.N. Bhagwati writes: “There is so much traditional wisdom amongst these tribals and forest dwellers accumulated over the years, that they are able to live in harmony with nature. Nature and environment are as much a part of their daily existence as food, shelter and clothing and they are continuously in communion with nature. Our plan for forest management must, therefore, take into account the human beings who live in the forests and nothing should be done which would affect their daily existence or their means of subsistence” (Seshia et al. eds. [2005], quoted inside book jacket).

In regard to management and use of forest wealth, it is important to take into account the internal dynamics and knowledge of the local indigenous communities. “The local knowledge and management of forest / tree resources for cultural / religious purposes is set within the complex social framework of the area. Conservation of tree resources through propagation of cultural and religious beliefs can best be understood in the context of control by the rural elite” (Kumar, S., 2001, p. 2897).

“In comparison to western scientific conservation models, which advocate the creation of national parks and sanctuaries, the conservation of bio-diversity in these people-declared-managed sacred groves is more effective. This may be due to the fact that these sacred groves are intimately connected to the social life of the communities and, such as in the case of Hariyali sacred grove, form an integral part of the cultural identity of the community. Rituals associated with the grove and annual festivals associated with the presiding deity serve to bind the community while strengthening the social bonds and relationships. Therefore, the sacred groves serve an important social function. This is clearly not the case with national parks, which may completely alienate local communities from the area, cutting of all ties and relationships that the community had previously.”

The well-researched documentation by Seshia et al (2005) describes the wealth of environmental knowledge acquired by indigenous local communities of Uttaranchal, North India. Such knowledge has become tacit social knowledge of the communities – that is, community knowledge.

Knowledge management (KM) usually refers to the enterprise environment and takes into account two dimensions: Collaborative dimension and Semantic dimension. It is useful and possible to widen the scope of KM, beyond the enterprise environment, applying it to community knowledge management. In so doing we need to take into consideration not only the Collaborative and Semantic dimensions but also other dimensions, namely, Structural/Organizational dimension, Technological dimension, Policy and Legislative dimension, Cultural dimension (which influences the semantic dimension, and people’s perceptions and priorities), Spirituality dimension, Space dimension, and Time dimension. This implies trans-generational or multi-generational transference of knowledge both formal and informal. In relation to a particular community some of these factors may influence KM more than the others. And they may play an enabling role or create barriers to communication and knowledge transfer. Human behavioral characteristics differ from place to place within a country and across national boundaries; they vary over periods of time too. In other words, they are influenced by space and time, culture and other factors. The organizational dimension of a community as a whole and of its programmes influence the communication and information flow patterns – e.g. oral, written, ITC-enabled; top-down, bottom-upward, horizontal, spiral, or a combination of these.

The knowledge acquired by rural and indigenous people through observation and experience, has largely been embodied in folklore and shared by word of mouth for centuries and passed down the generations. This knowledge needs to be recorded, (may even have to be recreated), processed, disseminated, and utilized. ”The new science of geomythology is being harnessed by researchers who believe folklore can save lives” (McKie, 2005).

“By utilizing the knowledge embedded in folklore of the locals/natives the latter will feel and appreciate their participation in and contribution to, the nation’s progress. An example of this was the indigenous peoples’ response to the Indonesian tsunami, wherein they suffered little loss of life because they knew the stories and myths, and thus reacted appropriately to seismic and water behavior warnings indigenous medicines are the foundation of some of the most effective and widely used medicines. Many medical companies are returning to this indigenous fountain of knowledge. As microbes adapt to the modern super medicines drug companies must find old ways to combat deadly new super bacteria. They are sending numerous researchers fanning out into the forests, mountains, and deserts of the world to ask indigenous healers in Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas how they do it. They hope to find cures for not only rare diseases that harm us now, but also potential pandemics that have the ability to wipe out millions of people in the future.”

Das Gupta of Cambridge University points out the value of this “natural capital”. He warns that such natural resources now 60 percent degraded globally contains the key to the health and wealth of nations (Earth and Sky, 11 Jan 2007). The question is should we maintain these natural treasures devoid of the indigenous and rural peoples who have lived in them in harmony for many generations and know how to unlock their wealth? Without their assistance we could spend decades and billions of dollars to find the uses of the plant and animal medicines. By the time we learn their uses pandemics may have come and gone. Foods we may need to sustain us in the future may be forever lost.

Currently we are witnessing the demise of many of these communities through expanding urbanization, flooding from dams and other means. In this process the world loses their knowledge and wisdom as well as the genetic diversity of the foods that may be critical to sustaining the growing global population in the future. We have powerful educational systems producing well-educated people. We have vast libraries and research centers wherein we create new inventions almost daily. We must not manifest the hubris that has brought down many civilizations before ours. We would be wise to recognize and seek out the knowledge of the natural peoples whose cultures have shown the genius for survival in the long term. In brief, knowledge and wisdom necessary for human survival may slip from our grasp while we watch helplessly as global events hold sway.

In the 1985 UNESCO publication The Traditional Knowledge and Management of Coastal Systems in Asia and the Pacific, edited by Ken Ruddle and Richard Johannes, it was noted: “In those early days, environmental knowledge possessed by local and indigenous communities was beginning to gain recognition, but only in isolated circles and at disparate localities. This changed with the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity and its explicit requirement in Article 8(j) that contracting Parties must 'respect, preserve and maintain the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities'. Today, local and indigenous knowledge is widely recognized as a key element in biodiversity conservation, even though its role continues to stir considerable controversy and debate.”

The new edition of the publication “brings together examples from indigenous, small-scale industrial and recreational fisheries in marine and freshwater environments across the globe, with examples of collaboration between traditional and 'modern' fisheries science and management. It marks a significant step forward to bridge the persistent gap between scientists and fishers. UNESCO's Coastal Marine programme, a supporting programme, started in 1985, has evolved into the Coastal Regions and Small Islands Platform (CSI), with its focus on interdisciplinary work that crosses the boundaries between the natural and social sciences, and between ecological and cultural systems. UNESCO's Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems (LINKS) programme, established in 2002, expands this work with an explicit focus on traditional knowledge and customary management. LINKS focuses on empowering local knowledge holders in biodiversity governance by strengthening collaboration among local communities, scientists and decision-makers. It also contributes to the safeguarding of traditional knowledge and practices within local communities by enhancing their transmission to the next generation. The knowledge of local fisher-folk must become an integral part of decision-making on renewable resource management.”

A key aspect of the UNESCO programme ICTs for Intercultural Dialogue and Diversity is Developing Communication Capacities of Indigenous peoples to foster intercultural dialogue between marginalized indigenous and rural people and other groups, both in urban and rural settings. This will contribute to enhancing indigenous peoples’ cultural identities and aid them in fighting discrimination. The project will also allow indigenous peoples to acquire greater skill in using ICTs thereby creating new opportunities for income generating activities. Many will adapt the technologies in novel and creative ways to deal with their own needs and wants. Other important aspects include the training of indigenous community leaders in ICT use, the production of indigenous cultural content for TV, radio and news media; raising of awareness at the national and international levels about indigenous creativity and about the importance cultural diversity expressed through ICTs1.

In national socio-economic development planning and plan implementation, equity and justice demand that problems of all sections of the society should be addressed and benefits of development should reach all citizens. There are many problems and barriers as to why the rural communities which account for over 70 percent of the population in most developing countries have not been participating in and benefiting from national development programmes: Illiteracy, multiplicity of languages, lack of resources and infrastructure, the rural-urban divide, local conventions and practices etc Increasingly it is being realized that the wealth of indigenous knowledge need to be recorded, made accessible and disseminated; and that some of the modern can be applied for the purpose.

Kumar (2006) writes about the impact of sustained radio broadcasts to India’s rural communities contributing to the success of the “Green Revolution”. Thus, hitherto marginalized communities can hope, perhaps slowly but steadily, to be empowered, find the means of expressing their concerns about an issue in a more level playing field, and the tacit community knowledge be used for the welfare of the nation. Obviously, the desired result may be achieved quickly in some cases while it may take months and years of persistent effort in others. Illustrative cases are reported by Neelameghan (2006).

Other recent initiatives in India – establishing Mission 2007: every village a knowledge centre, moving of the biodiversity bill, the Right to Information Act, and by recognizing “community knowledge” possessed by rural communities as valuable national asset and intellectual property, application of low cost, affordable ICTs and promotion of folk arts in rural areas as means of education and information - are expected to address and redressed some of the problems of the hitherto marginalized communities (Swaminathan, 2005).

In this context, wireless communication and use of mobile phones is spreading rapidly among these communities, enabling rapid communication, often in the local languages, on a variety of matters concerning their daily lives. The communication may be among the community members or these members with government offices, NGO groups, and others involved in rural development activities, including members of assistance projects and programmes from other countries and international organizations. Mobile communications facilities are also making the rural people increasingly aware of their rights, and details of rural development projects and programmes; markets for their agricultural and artisan products; sources of funding, etc. Makers and marketers of mobile and wireless communication devices and services are studying the specific needs of rural communities and their differences from those of the urban communities so as to enable them develop “rural-friendly” devices and services The paper will also enumerate the features of “rural-friendly mobiles” and in which sectors they are being used.

A Workshop on the Mobile Web in Developing Countries, (W3C) held in Bangalore, India in December 2006, discussed the needs and challenges facing people in developing economies who use a mobile phone as the primary and often sole platform for accessing the Web. Participants included mobile handset manufacturers, browser developers, software companies, local Indian companies and universities, and organizations working on ITC projects in rural communities in India and Africa.

The last two decades saw citizens all over the world demand better governance. The tremendous growth in ICTs holds sufficient promise to fulfill these aspirations. In their well-researched book Holmes and Brealey give many examples from different parts of the world, both developing and developed countries, how e-government can deliver public services in a consumer-friendly manner with better transparency and accountability. Some examples from India are mentioned below. In the beginning, of course, there was fear, mistrust, and turf protection in many places; however IT and an integrated online service have survived and come to stay. Thus:

The sectors wherein mobile and wireless technologies are expected to be applied in different parts of India include: Transport, Micro-commerce, Finance, Healthcare, Governance, Education, Entertainment with information (Krishnakumar, 2007).

The spread of telecom facilities – wireless technology and cell phones - into rural areas of developing countries, such as India, is enabling rural small traders and others to obtain market information for their products, to contact village and/or county officials to get information and also certificates and other documents. Information kiosks and tele-centres provide information and connect people in rural areas among themselves and with NGOs, government offices etc.

A study commissioned by Nokia and conducted by the Center for Knowledge Societies (CKS) noted that “mobile communication is revolutionizing economic and social life in rural parts of the country, generating a wave of entrepreneurs, and creating greater access to social services”.

In the rapidly growing mobile phone market, 6 million new mobile subscriptions are added each month. The research predicts that “by the end of 2007, one in five Indians will own a phone, while three quarters of the population (total population 1.1 billion) will be covered by a mobile network by a mobile network by the end of 2008”. Of the new subscriptions a significant number are from the rural areas “with scarce infrastructure and facilities, high level of illiteracy, low PC and internet penetration... the new adopters of mobile phones have found their incomes rise, as a result of increased productivity made possible through mobile communications”. Mobile phones are perceived as “a new and essential form of infrastructure that will transform a host of other service sectors in rural economies around the world”.

Handset makers, such as, Nokia, Motorola, LG, Samsung, Sony Ericsson are vying for a piece of the cake – the vast rural India wireless and mobile communication potential. They are examining and prioritizing the kind of facilities desired in mobile phones by rural folks, as differentiated from those by urban elites (Krishnakumar, 2007). For example, rural-friendly mobile telephones should:

A study by Robert Jensen, Harvard University economist, on the impact of mobile phones on fishermen in Kerala (South India) reports: “mobile phones have not only eliminated the need for fishermen to dump unsold fish in the sea, but also actually helped them increase their margins by 8% while reducing the prices for consumers by 4% ... the number of fishermen selling their catch outside their home markets rocketed from zero ro 35%. This also ensured that instead of selling their fish at beach auctions, the fishermen would call around to find the best price” (Krishnakumar, 2007).

WiMAX is enabling India to make a cost-effective and quick leap from voice (2.5G) to voice/data/video/TV (4G). WiMAX can also complement the fast spread of mobile devices. At present “every electrician, carpenter and delivery boy is using a mobile phone to conduct business”. When WiMAX makes high-speed data, video and TV possible on hand-held devices an increasing number of people will access the Net on their phones than on PCs.

“The early gains of partial wireless connectivity in rural India can be seen in the stunning success of e-choupal project (of the ITC company), which has empowered thousands of farmers in remote hamlets by enabling them to optimize price-discovery through access to updated information. WiMAX could accelerate the pace of such connectivity a thousand-fold, unleashing the potential and power of the rural economy ... it could become a powerful engine of socio-economic transformation.”

Replacing client PCs with SMS enabled phones: Warana is a village located in rural area of Maharashtra, India The sugarcane cooperative is serving about 70,000 farmers across 75 villages. In 1998, the Government of India with joint funding from the state government started a pilot experiment to bridge the digital divide by setting up the Warana Wired Village project, which contributed to 10 percent of the funding. This project costing about US$500,000 has established 54 kiosks connecting 40,000 farmers across the villages. The pilot project allowed farmers to check market price on the internet etc. The kiosks were then used for remote bookkeeping; to check sugarcane output of each farmer, tract their fertilizer output, issue harvesting permits and to get their pay stubs. A kiosk operator serves as an intermediary to give access to these farmers. The kiosks are still operational.

The client PCs have been replaced with SMS-enabled phones, and a smart phone attached on the server through USB. Thus an SMS gateway receives incoming SMS messages and converts them into database calls and the response is also converted to an SMS message and the result sent back to the phone that sent it. The authentication is through the SIM card, essentially the phone number. All the existing applications scenarios have been converted using SMS enabled phones. The system is available 24 hours. This truly mobile facility is being used by farmers in teashops, in the farmers’ fields, and in the kiosks. There is a potential saving of over some $25,000 dollars, savings from the maintenance cost of PCs. It is expected that the project will scaled to all the 54 villages under the Warana cooperative.

In recent years use of e-devices, such as, hand-held devices (e.g. cell phone), wireless, satellite and other communication technologies integrated with computer and audiovisual devices have greatly enhanced and advanced intra- and inter-community exchanges. Such facilities are also powerful instruments supporting collaboration and expression of views among people across domains and at various levels. Some of the positive features of such developments relate to the acceleration of empowerment, creation of a more level playing field, facilitation of expression of and greater visibility to the needs and ‘dreams’ of these communities, and drawing upon the wealth of their tacit “community knowledge” for the greater welfare of the society. These programmes are also intended to bridge the “digital divide” within and between nations.

Rural and indigenous people in all countries possess a wealth of “community knowledge”. The rest of the world is awaking to the value of this national asset. To what extent we may ask can the extension of ICTs – cell phones and wireless technology, etc – help to access, disseminate and utilize the traditional wisdom for the benefit of the society at large and at same time protect the marginalized communities from being exploited and preserve their linguistic and cultural individuality, artistic and spiritual values. Working and interacting with rural communities and the marginalized indigenous communities in different countries by non-governmental organization, academics and interested individuals, has enabled a deeper understanding of the problems, more particularly those relating to introducing, communicating and acceptance and use of new ideas, innovations and technologies in such communities.

Multimedia, videocassette, and CD-Rom have been used in developing countries for dissemination of information to and for use as learning tools by rural people. Such devices need to be prepared in local languages. The contents should be carefully selected and planned and should relate to the needs of the target audience. In the past the medium of folk arts have been used in various campaigns with some success. These could be converted to multimedia and ported on to CD-ROMs, videocassettes, etc. and more widely broadcast via TV and cable networks. Here collaborative efforts by different expert groups, financial support, and the assistance of TV and cable networks need to be mobilized.

1 Readers may access the UNESCO programme site at http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23206&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

For quotation purposes:
A. Neelameghan and Greg Chester:Use of Mobile and Wireless Communication: With Special Reference to Rural India: -In: TRANS. Internet-Zeitschrift für Kulturwissenschaften. No. 17/2008. WWW: http://www.inst.at/trans/17Nr/8-2/8-2_neela_chester.htm

	Internet-Zeitschrift für Kulturwissenschaften	17. Nr.	Februar 2010

Sektion 8.2.	Indigenous Peoples Knowledge Society: Transformations and Challenges Sektionsleiter \| Section Chairs: Adam Fiser (University of Toronto, Canada) and Philipp Budka (University of Vienna, Austria) Dokumentation \| Documentation \| Documentation